Abbasid dynasty

TitlesDissolution1258 (in Baghdad)
1517 (in Cairo)

The Abbasid dynasty or Abbasids (Arabic: بنو العباس, romanized: Banu al-ʿAbbās) were an Arab dynasty that ruled the Abbasid Caliphate between 750 and 1258. They were from the Qurayshi Hashimid clan of Banu Abbas, descended from Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. The Abbasid Caliphate is divided into three main periods: Early Abbasid era (750–861), Middle Abbasid era (861–936) and Later Abbasid era (936–1258). A cadet branch of the dynasty also ruled as ceremonial rulers for the Mamluk Sultanate as Caliph (1261–1517), until their conquest by the Ottoman Empire.

Historical Arab states and dynasties
Ancient Arab states Kingdom of Qedar 800 BC–300 BC Kingdom of Lihyan 600 BC–100 BC Nabataean Kingdom 400 BC–106 AD Kingdom of Osroene 132 BC–244 AD Emesene Dynasty 64 BC–300s AD Kingdom of Hatra 100s–241 AD Tanukhids 196–1100 AD Ghassanids 220–638 AD Salihids 300s–500s AD Lakhmids 300s–602 AD Kingdom of Kinda 450 AD–550 AD
Arab empires and caliphates Rashidun 632–661 Umayyads 661–750 Abbasids 750–1258 Fatimids 909–1171
Eastern dynasties Emirate of Armenia 654–884 Emirate of Tbilisi 736–1122 Emirate of Crete 824–961 Dulafids 840–897 Habbarids 854–1011 Kaysites 860–964 Shirvanshah 861–1538 Alavids 864–928 Hamdanids 890–1004 Rawadids 955–1071 Mazyadids 961–1150 Jarrahids 970–1107 Uqaylids 990–1096 Numayrids 990–1081 Mirdasids 1024–1080 Munqidhites 1025–1157 Ma'nids 1517–1697 Turabays 1480–1677 Harfushs 1517–1865 Shihabs 1697–1842
Western dynasties and caliphates Salihids 710–1019 Fihrid Emirate 745-757 Umayyad state of Córdoba 756–1031 Muhallabids 771–793 Idrisids 788–974 Aghlabids 800–909 Sulaymanids 814–922 Muslim Sicily 831–1091 Kanzids 1004–1412 Bakrids 1012–1051 Tujibids 1013–1039 Amirids 1020–1086 Abbadids 1023–1091 Yahsubids 1023–1062 Hammudids 1026–1057 Muzaynids 1027–1063 Jawharids 1031–1091 Hudids 1039–1110 Sumadihids 1041–1091 Tahirids 1049–1078 Nasrids 1230–1492 Saadids 1554–1659 Senussids 1837–1969
Arabian Peninsula Imamate of Oman 751–1970 Ziyadids 819–1138 Yufirids 847–997 Ukhaidhirds 865–1066 Rassids 897–1962 Qarmatians 899–1077 Wajihids 926–965 Sharifate of Mecca 968–1925 Sulayhids 1047–1138 Sulaymanids 1063–1174 Uyunids 1076–1253 Zurayids 1083–1174 Nabhanids 1154–1624 Mahdids 1159–1174 Rasulids 1229–1454 Usfurids 1253–1320 Jarwanids 1305–1487 Kathirids 1395–1967 Tahirids 1454–1526 Jabrids 1463–1521 Qasimids 1597–1872 Ya'arubids 1624–1742 Upper Yafa 1800–1967 Muscat and Oman 1820–1970 Rashidids 1836–1921 Qu'aitids 1858–1967 Emirate of Beihan 1903–1967 Idrisids 1906–1934 Mutawakkilite Kingdom 1926–1970
East Africa Makhzumi dynasty (Shewa) 896–1279 Nabahani dynasty (Pate Island) 1203–1894 Mahdali dynasty (Kilwa) 1277–1495 Mazrui dynasty (Mombasa) 1746–1828 Sultanate of Zanzibar 1856–1964 Nabahani dynasty (Wituland) 1858–1895 Tippu Tip's State 1860–1887
Current monarchies 'Alawis (Morocco) 1631–present Al Qasimi (Ras al Khaymah) 1727–present Al Qasimi (Sharjah) 1727–present Al Saud (Saudi Arabia) 1744–present Al Said (Oman) 1749–present Al Sabah (Kuwait) 1752–present Al Nahyan (Abu Dhabi) 1761–present Al Mualla (Umm al-Quwain) 1775–present Al Khalifa (Bahrain) 1783–present Al Nuaimi (Ajman) 1810–present Al Maktoum (Dubai) 1833–present Al Thani (Qatar) 1868–present Al Sharqi (Fujairah) 1900–present Hashemites (Jordan) 1921–present
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The Abbasids descended from Abbas, one of Muhammad's companions (as well as his uncle) and one of the early Qur'an scholars.^[1] Therefore, their roots trace back to Hashim ibn 'Abd Manaf and also Adnan in the following line: Al-‘Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim ibn Abd Manaf ibn Qusai^[2] ibn Kilab ibn Murrah ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ay ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr ibn Malik ibn An-Nadr ibn Kinanah ibn Khuzaima ibn Mudrikah ibn Ilyas ibn Mudar ibn Nizar ibn Ma'add ibn Adnan.^[3]

The Abbasid dynasty was the dynasty that ruled the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It descends from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes its name.^[4] The Abbasids ruled as caliphs for most of the caliphate from their capital in Baghdad in modern-day Iraq, after having overthrown the Umayyad Caliphate in the Abbasid Revolution of 750 CE (132 AH). The Abbasid Caliphate first centered its government in Kufa, modern-day Iraq, but in 762 the caliph Al-Mansur founded the city of Baghdad, near the ancient Babylonian capital city of Babylon. Baghdad became the center of science, culture and invention in what became known as the Golden Age of Islam. This, in addition to housing several key academic institutions, including the House of Wisdom, as well as a multiethnic and multi-religious environment, garnered it a worldwide reputation as the "Center of Learning".

The Abbasid leadership had to work hard in the last half of the 8th century (750–800) under several competent caliphs and their viziers to usher in the administrative changes needed to keep order of the political challenges created by the far-flung nature of the empire, and the limited communication across it.^[5] It was also during this early period of the dynasty, in particular during the governance of Al-Mansur, Harun al-Rashid, and al-Ma'mun, that its reputation and power were created.^[4] Abbasid Caliphate was at its peak until the assassination of Caliph Al-Mutawakkil in 861.

Al-Mutawakkil had appointed his oldest son, al-Muntasir, as his heir in 849/50, but slowly had shifted his favour to his second son, al-Mu'tazz, encouraged by al-Fath ibn Khaqan and the vizier Ubayd Allah ibn Yahya ibn Khaqan. This rivalry extended into the political sphere, as al-Mu'tazz's succession appears to have been backed by the traditional Abbasid elites as well, while al-Muntasir was backed by the Turkic and Maghariba guard troops.^[6][7] In late autumn 861, matters came to a head: in October, al-Mutawakkil ordered the estates of the Turkic general Wasif to be confiscated and handed over to al-Fath. Feeling backed into a corner, the Turkic leadership began a plot to assassinate the Caliph.^[8][9] They were soon joined, or at least had the tacit approval, of al-Muntasir, who smarted from a succession of humiliations: on 5 December, on the recommendation of al-Fath and Ubayd Allah, he was bypassed in favour of al-Mu'tazz for leading the Friday prayer at the end of Ramadan, while three days later, when al-Mutawakkil was feeling ill and chose al-Muntasir to represent him on the prayer, once again Ubayd Allah intervened and persuaded the Caliph to go in person. Even worse, according to al-Tabari, on the next day al-Mutawakkil alternately vilified and threatened to kill his eldest son, and even had al-Fath slap him on the face. With rumours circulating that Wasif and the other Turkish leaders would be rounded up and executed on 12 December, the conspirators decided to act.^[7][10]

According to al-Tabari, a story later circulated that al-Fath and Ubayd Allah were forewarned of the plot by a Turkic woman, but had disregarded it, confident that no-one would dare carry it out.^[11][12] On the night of 10/11 December, about one hour after midnight, the Turks burst into the chamber where the Caliph and al-Fath were having supper. Al-Fath was killed trying to protect the Caliph, who was killed next. Al-Muntasir, who now assumed the Caliphate, initially claimed that al-Fath had murdered his father, and that he had been killed after; within a short time, however, the official story changed to al-Mutawakkil choking on his drink.^[13][14] The murder of al-Mutawakkil began the tumultuous period known as "Anarchy at Samarra", which lasted until 870 and brought the Abbasid Caliphate to the brink of collapse.^[15]

The decline of the Abbasids started with the death of al-Mutawakkil. After his assassination the Anarchy at Samarra began, which was a period of extreme internal instability from 861 to 870 in the history of the Abbasid Caliphate, marked by the violent succession of four caliphs.

Al-Muntasir became Caliph on 11 December 861, after his father al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by members of his Turkic guard.^[16] Although he was suspected of being involved in the plot to kill al-Mutawakkil, he was able to quickly take control of affairs in the capital city of Samarra and receive the oath of allegiance from the leading men of the state.^[17] Al-Muntasir's sudden elevation to the Caliphate served to benefit several of his close associates, who gained senior positions in the government after his ascension. Included among these were his secretary, Ahmad ibn al-Khasib, who became vizier, and Wasif, a senior Turkic general who had likely been heavily involved in al-Mutawakkil's murder.^[18] His reign lasted less than half a year; it ended with his death from unknown causes on Sunday, 7 June 862, at the age of 24 years. During al-Muntasir's short reign (r. 861–862), the Turks pressured him into removing al-Mu'tazz and al-Mu'ayyad from the succession. When al-Muntasir died, the Turkic officers gathered together and decided to install the dead caliph's cousin al-Musta'in (son of al-Mutawakkil's brother Muhammad) on the throne.^[19] The new caliph was almost immediately faced with a large riot in Samarra in support of the disenfranchised al-Mu'tazz; the rioters were put down by the military but casualties on both sides were heavy. Al-Musta'in, worried that al-Mu'tazz or al-Mu'ayyad could press their claims to the caliphate, first attempted to buy them off and then threw them in prison.^[20] In 866 his nephew al-Musta'in was killed by al-Mu'tazz after Fifth Fitna. Al-Mu'tazz's reign marks the apogee of the decline of the Caliphate's central authority, and the climax of centrifugal tendencies, expressed through the emergence of the autonomous dynasties in Abbasid Caliphate. Finally, unable to meet the financial demands of the Turkic troops, in mid-July a palace coup deposed al-Mu'tazz. He was imprisoned and maltreated to such an extent that he died after three days, on 16 July 869.^[21] He was succeeded by his cousin al-Muhtadi.^[21] He ruled until 870, until he was murdered on 21 June 870, and replaced by his cousin, al-Mu'tamid (r. 870–892).^[22]

In a series of campaigns al-Mu'tadid recovered the provinces of Jazira, Thughur, and Jibal, and effected a rapprochement with the Saffarids in the east and the Tulunids in the west that secured their—albeit largely nominal—recognition of caliphal suzerainty. These successes came at the cost of gearing the economy almost exclusively towards the maintenance of the army, which resulted in the expansion and rise to power of the central fiscal bureaucracy and contributed to the Caliph's lasting reputation for avarice. Al-Mu'tadid was renowned for his cruelty when punishing criminals, and subsequent chroniclers recorded his extensive and ingenious use of torture. His reign saw the permanent move of the capital back to Baghdad, where he engaged in major building activities.

Al-Mu'tadid had taken care to prepare his son and successor, al-Muktafi, for his role by appointing him as governor in Rayy and the Jazira.^[23][24] Although al-Muktafi tried to follow his father's policies, he lacked his energy. The heavily militarized system of al-Muwaffaq and al-Mu'tadid required the Caliph to actively participate in campaigns, setting a personal example and forming ties of loyalty, reinforced by patronage, between the ruler and the soldiers. Al-Muktafi, on the other hand, did not "in his character and comportment [...], being a sedentary figure, instil much loyalty, let alone inspiration, in the soldiers" (Michael Bonner).^[25] The Caliphate was still able to secure major successes over the next few years, including the reincorporation of the Tulunid domains in 904 and victories over the Qarmatians, but with al-Muktafi's death in 908, the so-called "Abbasid restoration" passed its high-water mark, and a new period of crisis began.^[26][27][28]

After al-Muktafi's death, al-Muqtadir came to the throne. He came to the throne at the age of 13, the youngest Caliph in Abbasid history. Al-Muqtadir's long reign (908–932) had brought the Abbasids to their lowest ebb, in which most of Northern Africa was lost. Mosul had thrown off its dependence and the Greeks could make raids at pleasure along the poorly protected borders. Yet in the East formal recognition of the Caliphate remained in place, even by those who virtually claimed their independence; and nearer home, the Carmathians had been for the time put down.

After Al-Muqtadir's death, al-Qahir came to power in 932. He ruled for two years until he was pressured to abdicate in favour of Al-Muqtadir's nominated heir al-Radi (r. 932–940). When He refused to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into prison.^[29][30] According to al-Mas'udi, al-Radi "kept news of him hidden", so that he vanished from common knowledge.^[31] He was not freed until eleven years later, when al-Mustakfi (r. 944–946) came to the throne and discovered him locked away in a remote room in the palace.^[30][31]

Al-Radi's reign marked the end of the Caliph's political power and the rise of military strongmen, who competed for the title of Amir al-umara. Al-Radi is commonly spoken of as the last of the real Caliphs: the last to deliver orations at the Friday service, to hold assemblies with philosophers to discuss the questions of the day, or to take counsel on the affairs of State; the last to distribute largess among the needy, or to interpose to temper the severity of cruel officers.

Al-Muttaqi and his successors were all considered as later Abbasids. Al-Muti was a weak figure, for all intents and purposes a puppet ruler of the Buyid emir, first Mu'izz al-Dawla, and then his son, Izz al-Dawla (r. 967–978). As a result of his lack of real power, al-Muti' himself barely figures in the chronicles of his reign, and medieval historians generally considered his period as the lowest ebb of the Abbasid caliphate,^[32] an opinion shared by modern scholars as well.^[33] al-Muti was succeeded by his son al-Ta'i who made attempts to restore his political authority until he was deposed by Baha al-Dawla. He was succeeded by his cousin al-Qadir, in his long reign, al-Qadir was successful in restoration his political authority in Baghdad and its surrounding territory. He was succeeded by his son al-Qa'im, and it was during his reign that the Buyids were replaced by the Seljuks. The Abbasids continued their partnership with the Seljuks until the reign of al-Muqtafi. Then Abbasid continued to rule Iraq directly without disturbance until Mongol Invasion in 1258.

The Mamluk Sultans of Egypt and Syria later appointed an Abbasid prince as Caliph of Cairo, but these Mamluk Abbasid Caliphs were marginalized and merely symbolic, with no temporal power and little religious influence. The Cairo Abbasids were largely ceremonial Caliphs under the patronage of the Mamluk Sultanate that existed after the takeover of the Ayyubids.^[34][35] Even though they kept the title for about 250 years more, other than installing the Sultan in ceremonies, these Caliphs had little importance. After the Ottomans conquered Egypt in 1517, the Caliph of Cairo, al-Mutawakkil III was transported to Constantinople.

Centuries later, a tradition developed saying that, at this time, al-Mutawakkil III formally surrendered the title of caliph as well as its outward emblems—the sword and mantle of Muhammad—to the Ottoman Sultan Selim I, establishing the Ottoman sultans as the new caliphal line. Some historians have noted that this story does not appear in the literature until the 1780s, suggesting that it was advanced to bolster the claims of caliphal jurisdiction over Muslims outside the empire, as asserted in the 1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca.^[36]

Abbasids

Caliphs of the Abbasid Caliphate   Caliphs of Cairo Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muttalib Abu al-Fadl al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib Khatam al-Nabiyyin Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn Abd Allah Hibr al-Ummah Abd Allah ibn al-Abbas Ali ibn Abd Allah al-Sajjad Muhammad al-Imām al-Saffah (1) r. 750-754 al-Mansur (2) r. 754-775 al-Mahdi (3) r. 775-785 al-Hadi (4) r. 785-786 Harun al-Rashid (5) r. 786-809 al-Amin (6) r. 809-813 al-Ma'mun (7) r. 813-833 al-Mu'tasim (8) r. 833-842 al-Wathiq (9) r. 842-847 al-Mutawakkil (10) r. 847-861 Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Muhtadi (14) r. 869-870 al-Muntasir (11) r. 861-862 al-Mu'tazz (13) r. 866-869 Ṭalḥa al-Muwaffaq (Regent) 870-891 al-Mu'tamid (15) r. 870-892 al-Musta'in (12) r. 862-866 al-Mu'tadid (16) r. 892-902 Ja'far al-Mufawwid (Wali al-Ahd) 875-892 al-Muktafi (17) r. 902-908 al-Muqtadir (18) r. 908-929, 929-932 al-Qahir (19) r. 929, 932-934 al-Mustakfi (22) r. 944-946 al-Muti' (23) r. 946-974 Ishaq ibn Ja'far al-Muqtadir al-Radi (20) r. 934-940 al-Muttaqi (21) r. 940-944 al-Ta'i' (24) r. 974-991 al-Qadir (25) r. 991-1031 al-Qa'im (26) r. 1031-1075 Muhammad Ibn Abd Allah Dakhirat al-Din al-Muqtadi (27) r. 1075-1094 al-Mustazhir (28) r. 1094-1118 al-Mustarshid (29) r. 1118-1135 al-Muqtafi (31) r. 1136-1160 al-Rashid (30) r. 1135-1136 Ali ibn al-Fadl al-Qabi al-Mustanjid (32) r. 1160-1170 al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Mustadi' (33) r. 1170-1180 Abu Bakr ibn al-Hasan al-Nasir (34) r. 1180-1225 al-Hasan ibn Abu Bakr al-Zahir (35) r. 1225-1226 al-Hakim I (2) r. 1262-1302 al-Mustansir (36) r. 1226-1242 al-Mustansir (1) r. 1261 al-Mustakfi I (3) r. 1302-1340 Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Mustamsik al-Musta'sim (37) r. 1242-1258 al-Hakim II (5) r. 1341-1352 al-Mu'tadid I (6) r. 1352-1362 al-Wathiq I (4) r. 1340-1341 al-Mutawakkil I (7) r. 1362-1377, 1377-1383, 1389-1406 al-Musta'sim (8) r. 1377, 1386-1389 al-Wathiq II (9) r. 1383-1386 al-Mu'tadid II (11) r. 1414-1441 al-Mustakfi II (12) r. 1441-1451 al-Qa'im (13) r. 1451-1455 al-Mustanjid (14) r. 1455-1479 al-Musta'in (10) r. 1406-1414 Sultan of Egypt r. 1412 Ya'qub ibn Muhammad al-Mutawakkil II (15) r. 1479-1497 al-Mustamsik (16) r. 1497-1508, 1516-1517 al-Mutawakkil III (17) r. 1508-1516, 1517

• Abu'l-Abbas al-Saffah, the first caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate
• Abu Ja'far Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Mansur, the second Abbasid Caliph^[37]
• Al-Mahdi third Abbasid caliph (r. October 775 – 24 July 785) was the most influential Abbasid Caliph. He also promoted Art and science in the Islamic Caliphate.
• Al-Hadi, (r. 785–786) was an Abbasid caliph. He was very open with the people of his empire and allowed citizens to visit him in the palace at Baghdad to address him. As such, he was considered an enlightened ruler.
• Harun al-Rashid, fifth Abbasid caliph (r. 786–809) rule is traditionally regarded to be the height of Islamic Golden Age's power. He established the legendary library Bayt al-Hikma ("House of Wisdom") in Baghdad and during his rule Baghdad began to flourish as a world center of knowledge, culture and trade.
• Al-Amin, (r. 809–813) sixth Abbasid caliph, son of Harun al-Rashid and Zubaidah.
• Al-Ma'mun, (r. 813–833) was an Abbasid caliph, he was well educated and with a considerable interest in scholarship, al-Ma'mun promoted the Translation Movement, he was also an astronomer.
• Al-Mu'tasim, (833–842) was an Abbasid caliph, patron of the art and a powerful military leader.
• Al-Wathiq, (r. 842–847) was an Abbasid caliph, he was well educated and with a considerable interest in scholarship.
• Al-Mutawakkil, (r. 847–861) was the tenth Abbasid caliph, under his reign the Abbasid Empire reached its territorial height.

• Al-Mu'tamid Abbasid caliph from 871 to 892.
  • Talha al-Muwaffaq was the Abbasid military leader and father of caliph al-Mu'tadid.
• Al-Muqtadir, the eighteenth Abbasid caliph, who ruled from 908 to 932.
• Al-Radi, the Abbasid caliph from 936 to 940.

• Al-Qadir influential caliph of later Abbasid era.
  • Muhammad ibn al-Qa'im, 11th-century Abbasid prince, son of al-Qa'im and father of Al-Muqtadi.
• Al-Muqtafi, ruled from 1136 to 1160.
• al-Nasir, continued the efforts of his grandfather al-Muqtafi in restoring the caliphate to its ancient dominant role and achieved a surprising amount of success as his army even conquered parts of Iran.^[38] According to the historian, Angelika Hartmann, al-Nasir was the last effective Abbasid caliph.^[39]
• Al-Musta'sim, last Abbasid caliph of Baghdad.

• List of Abbasid caliphs
• Abbasid architecture
• Abbasid harem
• Ja'alin tribe
• Bhisti

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