May 1957 Central Plains tornado outbreak sequence

Weather event in the United States
May 1957 Central Plains tornado outbreak sequence
Tornadoes on May 21
Tornado outbreak
Tornadoes57
Maximum ratingF5 tornado
DurationMay 19–21, 1957
Overall effects
Fatalities59
Injuries341
Areas affectedGreat Plains, Midwestern United States
Part of the tornadoes and tornado outbreaks of 1957

The May 1957 Central Plains tornado outbreak sequence was a tornado outbreak sequence that took place across the US Central Plains from May 19 to May 21, 1957.[note 1][note 2] The most destructive tornado of the outbreak was rated at F5, the highest level, and is often called the Ruskin Heights tornado. The worst of the damage occurred in Ruskin Heights, a suburb and housing development in south Kansas City, Missouri. A total of 57 tornadoes were reported from Colorado to the Mississippi Valley and 59 people were killed during the outbreak, including 44 in the Ruskin Heights tornado.

Background

The F5 Ruskin Heights tornado near Spring Hill, Kansas.
Outbreak death toll[2]
State Total County County
total
Kansas 7 Franklin 3
Miami 4
Missouri 52 Carter 7
Jackson 37
St. Francois 8
Totals 59
All deaths were tornado-related

The outbreak sequence coincided with elevated tornado activity: the period May 19–26 was one of the most intense to date, since the founding of the United States Weather Bureau. At 00:30 UTC (7:30 p.m. CDT) on May 20, a 75-to-80-knot (86 to 92 mph; 139 to 148 km/h) mid-level jet stream bisected dew points of 65 °F (18 °C), coincident with a 986-millibar (29.1 inHg) low-pressure area and warm front over southeastern Nebraska. Soundings and surface weather observations indicated a robust, unstable warm sector, showing 3,000 j/kg of surface-based convective available potential energy (CAPE) and the presence of strong wind shear. Favoring supercells, this setup led to the then largest one-day total of tornadoes in Weather Bureau history. At 17:00 UTC (12:00 a.m. CDT) that day the Severe Local Storms Unit (SELS) in Kansas City had already issued a severe weather watch, mentioning tornadoes, for the Kansas–Nebraska state line and its environs. Subsequent updates covered much of the eastern Great Plains, from the Green Country to southeastern Nebraska.[3][4]

Confirmed tornadoes

Confirmed tornadoes by Fujita rating
FU F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total
0 12 14 20 7 3 1 57

Several unconfirmed tornadoes were also reported:

Prior to 1990, there is a likely undercount of tornadoes, particularly E/F0–1, with reports of weaker tornadoes becoming more common as population increased. A sharp increase in the annual average E/F0–1 count by approximately 200 tornadoes was noted upon the implementation of NEXRAD Doppler weather radar in 1990–1991.[6][note 3] 1974 marked the first year where significant tornado (E/F2+) counts became homogenous with contemporary values, attributed to the consistent implementation of Fujita scale assessments.[10][note 4] Numerous discrepancies on the details of tornadoes in this outbreak exist between sources. The total count of tornadoes and ratings differs from various agencies accordingly. The list below documents information from the most contemporary official sources alongside assessments from tornado historian Thomas P. Grazulis.

List of confirmed tornadoes in the tornado outbreak sequence of May 19–21, 1957
F#[note 4] Location County / Parish State Start Coord.[note 5] Date[note 6] Time (UTC) Path length Width[note 7] Damage
F1 ESE of West Park Fresno CA 36°42′N 119°50′W / 36.70°N 119.83°W / 36.70; -119.83 (West Park (May 19, F1)) May 19 16:18–16:23 0.1 mi (0.16 km) 33 yd (30 m) $30
A brief tornado—the third on record in the Fresno area—tore loose roof shingles, downed an almond tree, and mangled a rooftop air conditioning unit.[20][21]
F1 NW of Bayard Scotts Bluff NE 41°48′N 103°22′W / 41.80°N 103.37°W / 41.80; -103.37 (Bayard (May 19, F1)) May 19 01:30–? 1.7 mi (2.7 km) 33 yd (30 m) $30
Watched by highway patrol, this tornado did little or no damage.[22][21]
F2 W of Bayard Scotts Bluff NE 41°45′N 103°07′W / 41.75°N 103.12°W / 41.75; -103.12 (Northport (May 19, F2)) May 19 03:30–? 5.1 mi (8.2 km) 67 yd (61 m) $25,000
This tornado blew a farmhouse off its foundation and stripped most of its roof. It destroyed outbuildings on a few farms as well. The NCEI incorrectly list the path as south of Vance, Morrill County.[23][24][21]
F1 W of Gurley Cheyenne NE 41°19′N 102°59′W / 41.32°N 102.98°W / 41.32; -102.98 (Gurley (May 19, F1)) May 19 04:00–? 2 mi (3.2 km) 33 yd (30 m) $25,000
This tornado damaged outbuildings.[25][21]
F0 SSE of Bethune (CO) to near Herndon (KS) Kit Carson (CO), Sherman (KS), Cheyenne (KS), Rawlins (KS) CO, KS 39°15′N 102°24′W / 39.25°N 102.40°W / 39.25; -102.40 (Bethune (May 20, F0)) May 20 17:00–19:35 70.1 mi (112.8 km) 33 yd (30 m) $310
This tornado, at one point officially rated F2, caused very little damage. It was likely a family of several weak events.[26][27][28][29][30]
F0 Southeastern Phillipsburg Phillips KS 39°45′N 99°19′W / 39.75°N 99.32°W / 39.75; -99.32 (Phillipsburg (May 20, F0)) May 20 17:55–18:10 1 mi (1.6 km) 300 yd (270 m) Un­known
Details are unavailable.[31][32][5]
F0 N of Downs Osborne KS 39°33′N 98°33′W / 39.55°N 98.55°W / 39.55; -98.55 (Downs (May 20, F0)) May 20 19:15–? 0.1 mi (0.16 km) 33 yd (30 m) Un­known
This tornado felled a shed, wires, and trees.[33][32][5]
F0 SW of Hunter Mitchell KS 39°14′N 98°24′W / 39.23°N 98.40°W / 39.23; -98.40 (Hunter (May 20, F0)) May 20 19:25–? 0.1 mi (0.16 km) 33 yd (30 m) Un­known
Details are unavailable.[34][32][5]
F1 N of Burr Oak Jewell KS 39°55′N 98°18′W / 39.92°N 98.30°W / 39.92; -98.30 (Burr Oak (May 20, F1)) May 20 20:05–? 5.7 mi (9.2 km) 300 yd (270 m) $25,000
Sounding train-like, this tornado damaged three homes and many outbuildings.[35][5]
F0 N of Red Cloud Webster NE 40°06′N 98°31′W / 40.10°N 98.52°W / 40.10; -98.52 (Red Cloud (May 20, F0)) May 20 20:15–? 0.1 mi (0.16 km) 33 yd (30 m) $30
A brief tornado hit nothing substantial.[36][5]
F1 NE of Broken Bow Custer NE 41°26′N 99°37′W / 41.43°N 99.62°W / 41.43; -99.62 (Broken Bow (May 20, F1)) May 20 20:17–20:20 2.7 mi (4.3 km) 33 yd (30 m) $30
This tornado caused little damage.[37][5]
F0 E of Guide Rock Nuckolls NE 40°04′N 98°16′W / 40.07°N 98.27°W / 40.07; -98.27 (Guide Rock (May 20, F0)) May 20 20:20–? 0.1 mi (0.16 km) 33 yd (30 m) $30
Noted by highway patrol, this tornado caused little or damage.[38][32][5]
F4 ENE of Glasco to NW of Morrowville Cloud, Republic, Washington KS 39°23′N 97°44′W / 39.38°N 97.73°W / 39.38; -97.73 ((May 20, F4)) May 20 20:50–? 44.6 mi (71.8 km) 400 yd (370 m) $250,000
Part of a family, this violent tornado struck 12 farms at F4 intensity, at one point approaching F5 status. The main event, it destroyed an entire farm near Haddam, and was accompanied by at least four—possibly up to eight—satellite tornadoes, along with many funnel clouds. The storm that produced the tornado damaged a 50-to-60-mile-long (80 to 97 km) swath.[39][23][40][5]
F2 SSE of Concordia Cloud KS 39°31′N 97°38′W / 39.52°N 97.63°W / 39.52; -97.63 (Concordia (May 20, F2)) May 20 20:50–? 0.1 mi (0.16 km) 33 yd (30 m) Un­known
Details are unknown. Grazulis did not list the tornado as an F2 or stronger.[41][42][5]
F2 W of Huscher Cloud KS 39°31′N 97°38′W / 39.52°N 97.63°W / 39.52; -97.63 (Huscher #1 (May 20, F2)) May 20 20:50–? 0.1 mi (0.16 km) 33 yd (30 m) Un­known
This tornado destroyed a barn.[23][43][5]
F2 SW of Huscher Cloud KS 39°28′N 97°38′W / 39.47°N 97.63°W / 39.47; -97.63 (Huscher #2 (May 20, F2)) May 20 20:50–? 0.1 mi (0.16 km) 33 yd (30 m) Un­known
Details are unknown. Grazulis did not list the tornado as an F2 or stronger.[41][44][5]
F3 NE of Rice Cloud KS 39°34′N 97°34′W / 39.57°N 97.57°W / 39.57; -97.57 (Rice (May 20, F3)) May 20 20:50–? 6.1 mi (9.8 km) 33 yd (30 m) Un­known
This tornado destroyed a barn near Hollis. Grazulis rated it F2.[23][45][5]
F1 WSW of Anselmo Custer NE 41°36′N 99°56′W / 41.60°N 99.93°W / 41.60; -99.93 ((May 20, F1)) May 20 21:00–? 0.1 mi (0.16 km) 33 yd (30 m) $2,500
This tornado mainly affected remote areas.[46][47]
F1 N of Rockerville Pennington SD 43°58′N 103°21′W / 43.97°N 103.35°W / 43.97; -103.35 (Rockerville (May 20, F1)) May 20 21:00–? 0.1 mi (0.16 km) 33 yd (30 m) $2,500
This tornado blew down a barn.[48][5]
F2 W of Reynolds to E of Palmyra Thayer, Jefferson, Saline, Lancaster NE 40°04′N 97°30′W / 40.07°N 97.50°W / 40.07; -97.50 (Reynolds (May 20, F2)) May 20 22:00–? 75.3 mi (121.2 km) 33 yd (30 m) $250,000
This tornado hit more than 12 farms, destroying barns. It unroofed homes, and killed upward of 500 turkeys on a farm. Grazulis listed a 30-mile (48 km) path.[49][50][47]
F2 Doniphan to NE of Phillips Hall, Hamilton NE 40°46′N 98°22′W / 40.77°N 98.37°W / 40.77; -98.37 (Doniphan (May 20, F2)) May 20 23:00–? 18.2 mi (29.3 km) 33 yd (30 m) Un­known
Producing scattered damage, this tornado hit three farms, one of them at "near-F3" intensity.[49][51][47]
F2 W of Weatherby DeKalb May 20 2300 9.8 miles
(15.7 km)
Barns and outbuildings were destroyed.
F0 N of Pawnee Pawnee May 20 2300 0.5 mile
(0.8 km)
F2 NE of Friend to N of Emerald Saline, Gage, Lancaster May 20 2320 23.9 miles
(38.2 km)
Barns were destroyed on two farms.
F0 S of Hartford Lyon May 20 2345 0.5 mile
(0.8 km)
F2 NE of Hominy Osage May 20 2345 0.1 mile
(0.16 km)
F2 NW of Prague Lincoln May 20 0000 unknown
Tornado damaged eight farms near Prague.
F0 NW of Madison Greenwood May 20 0015 1 mile
(1.6 km)
F5 SW of Williamsburg to E of Raytown, MO Franklin, Miami, Johnson, Jackson (MO) May 20 0015 71 miles
(111 km)
44 deaths – See section on this tornado – 531 people were injured.
F0 NW of Kiefer Creek May 20 0100 0.1 mile
(0.16 km)
F0 E of Hogshooter Nowata May 20 0100 0.1 mile
(0.16 km)
F1 Broken Arrow area (SE Tulsa) Tulsa May 20 0130 3.6 miles
(5.8 km)
Tornado moved through the town causing roof damage to at least 200 homes, one of which lost its roof entirely.
F3 Homewood area Franklin May 20 0137 5.6 miles
(9 km)
F2 SW of Richmond Jackson, Ray May 20 0137 12.8 miles
(20.5 km)
F0 SW of Beggs Okmulgee May 20 0204 0.1 mile
(0.16 km)
F1 W of Chelsea Rogers May 20 0430 0.1 mile
(0.16 km)
F1 NW of Centralia Craig May 21 0500 0.1 mile
(0.16 km)
F1 NE of Vinita Craig May 21 0500 0.1 mile
(0.16 km)
F3 NW of Garland to NE of Sallisaw Mayes, Delaware May 21 0510 20.4 miles
(32.6 km)
Barns were destroyed by the tornado. 40 buildings were damaged in and around Spavinaw. One home was destroyed near Lone Chapel as well.
F1 E of Cardwell to N of Deering Dunklin, Pemiscot May 21 0545 23.7 miles
(37.9 km)
Tornado caused roof and barn damage.
F2 W of Kennett Dunklin May 21 0545 0.1 mile
(0.16 km)
F2 W of English Carroll May 21 0700 0.8 mile
(1.3 km)
F1 NE of Staples Todd, Cass May 21 1800 3.8 miles
(6.1 km)
A barn and a garage were destroyed. Pine trees were snapped as well.
F4 E of Rush City Chisago May 21 1900 9.2 miles
(14.7 km)
Eight barns and four homes were destroyed. One home was completely swept away with near-F5-level damage.
F3 E of Doss Dent May 21 2100 10.2 miles
(16.3 km)
Three homes were destroyed, one of which was leveled. Two other homes were damaged.
F2 S of Squires Taney, Douglas May 21 2115 14.5 miles
(23.2 km)
Homes and one school was destroyed. The teacher and 11 students survived by driving to a farmhouse with a basement.
F1 NE of Mill Spring Wayne May 21 2130 13 miles
(20.8 km)
Homes had their roofs torn off and buildings were damaged on four farms.
F1 S of Centerville Reynolds May 21 2145 0.2 mile
(0.32 km)
F3 SW of Sunlight to Desloge Washington, St. Francois May 21 2145 22.2 miles
(35.5 km)
8 deaths Multiple homes and 24 barns were destroyed. 20% of the town of Belgrade was destroyed. An F4 tornado also hit Belgrade on March 19, 1948.[52]
F4 Fremont area Carter May 21 2153 9.1 miles
(14.6 km)
7 deaths - Fremont was devastated, with homes, businesses, and schools destroyed on the east side of town. Damage also occurred on the south side of Van Buren. May have been an F5.[53]
F2 N of Burfordville Cape Girardeau May 21 2300 5.1 miles
(8.2 km)
Several farms were damaged by the tornado. Barns were destroyed and a house had its roof torn off.
F1 E of Lewistown Lewis May 21 2330 7.4 miles
(11.8 km)
Struck the northwest side of Monticello. Four homes were destroyed and a three-story apartment building was badly damaged.
F2 S of Columbia to SE of Shiloh Monroe, St. Clair May 21 2150 19.7 miles
(31.5 km)
F2 SE of Claremont Richland May 21 2300 3.6 miles
(5.8 km)
Four farms were struck by the tornado.
F2 W of Stockton Cedar, Muscatine, Scott May 21 2300 8.9 miles
(14.2 km)
Several barns and a grain elevator were destroyed.
F3 S of Makanda Union, Jackson May 21 0007 8.5 miles
(13.6 km)
25 structures and over 5,000 fruit trees were destroyed.
F3 N of Good Hope McDonough May 21 0140 13.7 miles
(21.9 km)
Two homes were destroyed on the southeast edge of Colmar.
F2 SW of Pelzer Warrick May 21 0203 0.1 mile
(0.16 km)
A home was spun 150 feet (46 m) off its foundation. The roof was carried 500 feet (150 m). Two people were injured.

Williamsburg−Spring Hill, Kansas/Ruskin Heights–Raytown, Missouri

Williamsburg−Spring Hill, Kansas/Ruskin Heights–Raytown, Missouri
The tornado in its formative stage, in Kansas
Meteorological history
FormedMay 20, 1957, 7:15 p.m. CDT (UTC−05:00)
Duration1 hour and 38 minutes
F5 tornado
on the Fujita scale
Highest winds>261 mph (420 km/h)
Overall effects
Fatalities44
Injuries531
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The National Weather Service's damage survey and analysis

This violent, long-tracked, multiple vortex F5 tornado began near Williamsburg, and moved NE through several counties. Major damage occurred in rural areas near Ottawa and Spring Hill, where homes were completely leveled and several fatalities occurred. The tornado continued into the southern suburbs of Kansas City, tearing through Martin City, Raytown, Hickman Mills, and Ruskin Heights. Entire blocks of homes were completely leveled, many of which were swept cleanly away with debris wind-rowed long distances through nearby fields. Some homes had their anchor-bolted subflooring ripped away, leaving only basements behind. Many businesses including a grocery store, a shopping center, and restaurants were completely destroyed. A few of the businesses at the shopping center sustained F5 damage. Vehicles were thrown through the air and destroyed, and the steel-reinforced Ruskin Heights High School was badly damaged. A canceled check from Hickman Mills was found 165 miles away in Ottumwa, Iowa. This event might have been a tornado family rather than a single tornado, as there was possible break in the damage path south of Wellsville, Kansas. Grazulis rated the tornado an F4, but said probable F5 damage occurred in Ruskin Heights; he subsequently rated the tornado F5.[54][55]

See also

Bibliography

  • Caught in the Path, (ISBN 0-9655774-0-6) by Carolyn Glenn Brewer.

Notes

  1. ^ An outbreak is generally defined as a group of at least six tornadoes (the number sometimes varies slightly according to local climatology) with no more than a six-hour gap between individual tornadoes. An outbreak sequence, prior to (after) the start of modern records in 1950, is defined as a period of no more than two (one) consecutive days without at least one significant (F2 or stronger) tornado.[1]
  2. ^ All damage totals are in 1957 United States dollars unless otherwise noted.
  3. ^ Historically, the number of tornadoes globally and in the United States was and is likely underrepresented: research by Grazulis on annual tornado activity suggests that, as of 2001, only 53% of yearly U.S. tornadoes were officially recorded. Documentation of tornadoes outside the United States was historically less exhaustive, owing to the lack of monitors in many nations and, in some cases, to internal political controls on public information.[7] Most countries only recorded tornadoes that produced severe damage or loss of life.[8] Significant low biases in U.S. tornado counts likely occurred through the early 1990s, when advanced NEXRAD was first installed and the National Weather Service began comprehensively verifying tornado occurrences.[9]
  4. ^ a b The Fujita scale was devised under the aegis of scientist T. Theodore Fujita in the early 1970s. Prior to the advent of the scale in 1971, tornadoes in the United States were officially unrated.[11][12] Tornado ratings were retroactively applied to events prior to the formal adoption of the F-scale by the National Weather Service.[13] While the Fujita scale has been superseded by the Enhanced Fujita scale in the U.S. since February 1, 2007,[14] Canada used the old scale until April 1, 2013;[15] nations elsewhere, like the United Kingdom, apply other classifications such as the TORRO scale.[16]
  5. ^ All starting coordinates are based on the NCEI database and may not reflect contemporary analyses
  6. ^ All dates are based on the local time zone where the tornado touched down; however, all times are in Coordinated Universal Time and dates are split at midnight CST/CDT for consistency.
  7. ^ The listed width values are primarily the average/mean width of the tornadoes, with those having known maximum widths denoted by ♯. From 1952 to 1994, reports largely list mean width whereas contemporary years list maximum width.[17] Values provided by Grazulis are the average width, with estimates being rounded down (i.e. 0.5 mi (0.80 km) is rounded down from 880 yards to 800 yards.[18][19]

References

  1. ^ Schneider, Russell S.; Brooks, Harold E.; Schaefer, Joseph T. (2004). Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003) (PDF). 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society. Retrieved September 17, 2019.
  2. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, Events reported
  3. ^ "Ruskin Heights Tornado of May 20 1957". Kansas City/Pleasant Hill, MO Weather Forecast Office. Pleasant Hill, Missouri: National Weather Service. Retrieved 4 September 2024.
  4. ^ Jonathan Finch. "North America Tornado Cases 1950 to 1959". Bangladesh Tornadoes. Retrieved 4 September 2024.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n USWB 1957, p. 183.
  6. ^ Agee and Childs 2014, p. 1496.
  7. ^ Grazulis 2001a, pp. 251–4.
  8. ^ Edwards, Roger (March 5, 2015). "The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC)". Storm Prediction Center: Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes. Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  9. ^ Cook & Schaefer 2008, p. 3135.
  10. ^ Agee and Childs 2014, pp. 1497, 1503.
  11. ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 141.
  12. ^ Grazulis 2001a, p. 131.
  13. ^ Edwards et al. 2013, p. 641–642.
  14. ^ Edwards, Roger (March 5, 2015). "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC). Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  15. ^ "Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF-Scale)". Environment and Climate Change Canada. Environment and Climate Change Canada. June 6, 2013. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  16. ^ "The International Tornado Intensity Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. 2016. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  17. ^ Agee and Childs 2014, p. 1494.
  18. ^ Brooks 2004, p. 310.
  19. ^ Grazulis 1990, p. ix.
  20. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #9990162
  21. ^ a b c d USWB 1957, p. 182.
  22. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10069875
  23. ^ a b c d Grazulis 1993, p. 1006.
  24. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10069876
  25. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10069877
  26. ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 81.
  27. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #9990306
  28. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10028873
  29. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10028874
  30. ^ USWB 1957, pp. 182–3.
  31. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10028875
  32. ^ a b c d "Severe Weather Database Files (1950-2021)". Storm Prediction Center Maps, Graphics, and Data Page. Norman, Oklahoma: Storm Prediction Center. July 11, 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2022.
  33. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10028876
  34. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10028877
  35. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10028878
  36. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10069879
  37. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10069880
  38. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10069881
  39. ^ Grazulis 1984, p. A-67.
  40. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10027533
  41. ^ a b Grazulis 1993, pp. 1006–7.
  42. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10027531
  43. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10028880
  44. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10028879
  45. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10027532
  46. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10069882
  47. ^ a b c USWB 1957, p. 184.
  48. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10112146
  49. ^ a b Grazulis 1993, p. 1007.
  50. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10069884
  51. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10069886
  52. ^ Grazulis 1993, pp. 934, 1007.
  53. ^ Christine L. Wielgos (23 May 2007). "50th Anniversary of the Carter County, MO F4 Tornado: May 21st, 1957". NOAA's National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office Paducah, KY. West Paducah, Kentucky: National Weather Service. Archived from the original on 28 May 2007. Retrieved 4 September 2024.
  54. ^ "55th Anniversary of the Ruskin Heights-Hickman Mills Tornado". NOAA's National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office Kansas City/Pleasant Hill, MO. Pleasant Hill, Missouri: National Weather Service. Archived from the original on June 5, 2008. Retrieved 4 September 2024.
  55. ^ "Ruskin Heights Tornado Memorial". Ruskin Heights Tornado. Ruskin Heights, Missouri: Ruskin Heights Memorial Tree Arbor Foundation. 11 June 2007. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 4 September 2024.

Sources

  • Agee, Ernest M.; Childs, Samuel (June 1, 2014). "Adjustments in Tornado Counts, F-Scale Intensity, and Path Width for Assessing Significant Tornado Destruction". Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology. 53 (6). American Meteorological Society: 1494–1505. doi:10.1175/JAMC-D-13-0235.1.
  • Brooks, Harold E. (April 2004). "On the Relationship of Tornado Path Length and Width to Intensity". Weather and Forecasting. 19 (2): 310–19. Bibcode:2004WtFor..19..310B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0310:OTROTP>2.0.CO;2.
  • Cook, A. R.; Schaefer, J. T. (August 2008). "The Relation of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". Monthly Weather Review. 136 (8): 3121–3137. Bibcode:2008MWRv..136.3121C. doi:10.1175/2007MWR2171.1.
  • Edwards, Roger; LaDue, James G.; Ferree, John T.; Scharfenberg, Kevin; Maier, Chris; Coulbourne, William L. (May 1, 2013). "Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 94 (5). American Meteorological Society: 641–653. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00006.1.
  • Grazulis, Thomas P. (May 1984). Violent Tornado Climatography, 1880–1982. OSTI (Technical report). NUREG. Washington, D.C.: Nuclear Regulatory Commission. OSTI 7099491. CR-3670.
    • — (November 1990). Significant Tornadoes 1880–1989. Vol. 2. St. Johnsbury, Vermont: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-02-3.
    • — (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events. St. Johnsbury, Vermont: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
    • — (2001a). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3538-0.
    • — (2001b). F5-F6 Tornadoes. St. Johnsbury, Vermont: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films.
  • National Weather Service. Storm Data Publication (Report). National Centers for Environmental Information – via Storm Events Database.
  • U.S. Weather Bureau (May 1957). "Storm data and unusual weather phenomena". Climatological Data National Summary. 8 (5). Asheville, North Carolina: National Climatic Data Center: 182–89.
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